VNIIGAZ: The Fundamental Problems of Basin and Oil and Gas Formation Creation

D. A. Astafiev  LLC «Gazprom VNIIGAZ»

The growing demand for hydrocarbon fuels in many of the world’s developed and developing countries as well as the gradual depletion of hydrocarbon reserves in the relatively accessible and developed regions is forcing oil and gas companies to diversify their petroleum exploration efforts in a number of ways. On one hand, there are more exploration activities in the Arctic regions and on continental shelves, slopes and pediments [5, 8, 26] where alternative trends are practiced with the development of shale oil and gas, gas-hydrate accumulations [15, 17], deposits in transitional complex’s and basement rock [14, 23], deep and ultradeep accumulations deposited in Earth’s crust at 7,0-10,0 km and deeper intervals [26]. On the other hand, every time larger-scale fundamental research is intensifying on the issues of sedimentary basins’ formation, their evolution and the possibilities for advanced forecasting of large, possibly even non-conventional petroleum accumulation zones [10]. With their success fully dependant on the resolution of issues related to the Earth’s deep structure, tectonics and global geodynamics on the whole. Among those listed, the following problems remain unsolved so far:
»    global and planetary mechanisms of Earth’s geodynamic evolution;
»    role of inner solid core and its outer liquid cover in geodynamical process;
»    unique features of the crust-mantle matter’s convection with the predominating solid-phase constituent;
»    causes and the deep processes in formation and disintegration of supercontinents;
»    origin and the mechanism of functioning subduction belts and zones;
»    role of planetary magma-fluid-dynamical system in geodynamics of the Earth’s crust-mantle cover;
»    causes for the origin and development of sedimentary and petroleum basins, orogenes, platforms and the Earth’s tectonically active belts, continental and oceanic segments in general.

This and many other specific issues of general, global and regional geodynamics are discussed at annual meetings of the Interdepartmental Tectonic Committee [3, 4, 7, 9, 18, 21], and since 2013, also at the Scientific Council on Problems of Tectonics and Geodynamics for Geosciences Division of RAS [11].

Due to numerous discoveries of unique magnitude HC reserves at extreme depths [26], such as those discovered in Paleocene formations of Gulf of Mexico basin in 18 fields, including the Tiber field at 10,5 km depth, with preliminary estimated reserves of 400-550 MT and the Kaskida field at 9,75 km depth with 410 MT of reserves; in the Atlantic Ocean’s Brazilian shelf at the Carioca/Sugar Loaf field in cretaceous deposits at 5,5 km depth with geological reserves of 11 bln. T. Also in the South-Caspian Depression at the Shah-Deniz field, where 5 accumulations of gas condensate with a possible oil fringe were discovered in Lower Pliocene stratum at 6,3-7,0 km depths with recoverable reserves of 1440 mln t.f.e.. The issue of hydrocarbon formation, on the whole, is once again escalated [8]. In this regard, on October 22-25, 2012, OJSC “Central Geophysical Expedition” (Moscow) held 1st “ “Kudryavtsev’s Readings” – All-Russian Conference On: The Formation of Deep Oil And Gas Deposits, dedicated to the memory of professor N.A. Kudryavtsev, founder of the modern theory of non-organic genesis of oil. The resolution to this conference (http://journal.deepoil.ru/images/stories/docs/DO-1-1-2013/2_Resolution_1-KR.pdf) confirms that the development of this area requires continuation of research of the Earth’s deep subsoil, their structures, geodynamics, evolution of material constitution, properties of abyssal matter, mechanisms of mobilization, vertical migration, differentiation of chemical elements and other issues. This problem had previously been discussed at many conferences on genesis of oil and Earth’s degassing in 1967, 1976, 1985, 1991, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2010 as well as in many monographs and topical publications [6, 12, 13, 14, 15].

The premise for continued research of hydrocarbon genesis and in particular, possible genesis of hydrocarbons in depth intervals below the basement surface, are the listed examples of oil and gas fields with very large reserves in lower horizons of sedimentary cover, which were preserved at high stages of katagenesis (AK1-AK3), have temperatures over 150°C, have the presence of AHPP, as well as fields in basement rock, with best known of them being White Tiger, Dragon etc. in the Sunda shelf of Vietnam, the Hugoton Panhandle in the USA’s Midcontinental basin, La Paz in the Maracaibo basin of Venezuela etc. Examples of fields with hydrocarbon deposits in basement rock and transitional complexes are presently known in many petroleum basins on all continents excluding, for now, Antarctic and Greenland [16].

Also, there are many questions about fields with accumulations in ancient strata of Riphean-Vendian-Cambrian age (100-500 mln. years) in ancient platforms, in many cases also with uniquely large reserves of oil and gas, such as Kovykta, Yurubcheno-Tokhomskoye, Chayanda, Talakan, Verkhnechonskoye and other deposits of Lena-Tunguska PB on Siberian and other ancient platforms. Such cases require the explanation of the reasons as to why such long preservations of the accumulations has occurred, especially the gas accumulations, or their possibly younger, even modern age, but it is also necessary to explain the source of hydrocarbons, not excluding the possibility of accumulations’ replenishment.

These questions are quite reasonable, since another thing to consider is the disjunctive tectonics in lower horizons of sedimentary cover and the basement which are more intensive than on the surface which opens up the possibility of vertical or subvertical hydrocarbon migration, the presence of through vertical and subvertical zones of gas saturation, detected by seismic (“gas shadows”) in sedimentary cover above and below, penetrating deep into the basement rock. However skeptical some supporters of biogenic HC genesis may feel about the possibility of deep HC entering sedimentary strata, but considering the newest data about Earth’s deep structure, peculiar features of magmatism and subsoil degassing, studying the possibility of deep (lithosphere-mantle) HC genesis, including qualitative and quantitative aspects, must be continued on a modern scientific basis, encompassing knowledge of deep structure and geodynamic development of sedimentary basins, continents, oceans and the Earth on the whole.

Searching to resolve the problem of deep HC creation, although it isn’t the only one possible, will contribute to accelerate the knowledge of deep structures, geodynamic mechanisms of the origin and evolution of sedimentary basins, orogenes, continents, oceans and the Earth on the whole. It is especially important to change from traditional research of geodynamical processes within the limits of lithosphere and upper mantle to researching these processes and derived formations within the entire volume of crust-mantle cover, which without a doubt is influenced by Earth’s global and planetary geodynamics.

What may be fruitful in this regard are the studies of issues of basin creation and petroleum-bearing capacity with their interrelation with the Earth’s deep structure and its geodynamics on the whole. The first results of these studies being apparently progressive both for problems at hand and for all of geosciences [9, 10, 11], including their applied aspects, such as studying seismicity and forecasting catastrophic earthquakes, tectonophysical modeling, improving the methodology of palinspatic reconstructions, creating regional models for tectonic, petrogeological, metallogenic zoning, quantitative estimation of HC and other useful mineral resources, creating the new generation of maps, profile sections and corresponding graphic geological materials.

This is becoming possible thanks to all the latest accumulated data on seismic tomography, materials on the deep gravimetric and magnetic surveys, ultradeep drilling in sedimentary basins, including those located on continental margins, ultradeep marine basins as well as in metallogenic provinces and orogenes of various continents; GPS and GLONASS survey data, large generalizations on deep structure and petroleum-bearing capacity as for individual sedimentary basins, and for regions on the whole. All this data requires a deep systematic consolidation, because correct understanding of geological space (geoenvironment) where the processes of HC creation may be taking place, will accelerate the resolution of this fundamental petroleum geology problem.

All of this data calls for further elaboration of the presently ruling concepts of lithosphere plate tectonics and the search for such explanations for the mechanisms of spreading in the ocean rifts, plunging of lithosphere plates in subduction belts and zones, convection and all other above listed problems, which would be more logical and more adequate to surface and depth observations.

An intensive search of solutions for the accumulated problems encompassing the newest data on the Earth’s deep structure, its geodynamics and that of its large regions, is evidenced by one of many, relatively new monographs: “Beyond lithosphere plate tectonics” [27], as well as a large number of foreign publications generalizing seismic tomography data [24, 25].

Understanding the accumulated geological and geophysical data allowed for proposing a new model of the Earth’s geodynamics, which envisages geodynamical and magma-fluid-dynamical processes spreading across the entire thickness of Earth’s crust-mantle cover. Essentially, there is a trend of transition from the concept of lithosphere plate tectonics to a more advanced concept of crust-mantle plate (sectors) geodynamics [9, 10]. The premises for development of such model are:
»    detection of the Earth’s crust-mantle cover based on HD seismic tomography studies and the DSS of radial and subradial columnar structures [9, 13] which are a consequence of active geodynamical processes in the core-mantle divide, particularly in the outer layers of the liquid core and the D// layer in conditions of the planetary lateral layering of the lithosphere and the mantle;
»    columnar structures of the upper part of oceanic crust is examined in the monograph “Wide-angle seismic profiling of aquatic beds” [20];
»    earlier, based on interpretation data of short-period waves from nuclear explosions, ultra low velocity zones (ULVZ) interpreted as layers of elevated melting and sources of plumes were found at the core-mantle border in a few of Earth’s regions, including 300 points below the Siberian territory on the Craton and Batholit profiles [20];
»    discovery of crust-mantle sector groupings [3], surrounded by belts of upwelling-spreading, are united by a common subduction-diving belt or zone, which in the aggregate represent real terrestrial Benard convection g-type cells (Figure 1);
»    seismic tomography mapping of the increased thickness zones (2-3 times, up to 300 km and more) of the D// layer at the base of the Earth’s crust-mantle cover under sedimentary basins and in particular under the SB of the Siberian craton;
»    determination of the layering in the D// layer and the outer sphere of the liquid core below the core-mantle divide, which is related to the active geodynamical processes (phase transitions and lateral displacement of the D// layer matter, as well as the Earth’s outer core matter) at the core-mantle divide;
»    grounds for the existence of a planetary magmo-fluid-dynamical system with discrete quasi-liquid phase in the crust-mantle cover [6,9], stimulating the geodynamical processes at the planetary, global and regional levels, particularly with continental rifting-, basin- and orogenesis (Figure 2);
»    the same planetary magma-fluid-dynamical system provides an efficient escape of endogenous heat energy, emitted at the core-mantle divide as well as the cyclic process of formation and Pangaea breakup[4];
»    sustained high levels of endogenous energy is probably conditioned on eccentric movement of the solid core inside the liquid core, because the Earth-Moon system has a common barycenter and the solid core undergoes a significant (5-15 km relative to the geocenter) shift towards a geographical point with coordinates long. 25° W, lat. 75° N, i.e. approximately in direction towards the shift of the liquid core center of the mass (Barkin Y. V. To the dynamics of Earth’s solid core);
»    interrelation of all the intra-lithospheric and large surface tectonic formations (rifts, sedimentary basins, orogenes, volcanic and seismic belts with the deep columnar structure and geodynamics of crust-mantle cover [9, 10, 11].

The essence of the crust-mantle plate (sector) geodynamics is as follows. Resulting the combination of world’s tectonic map with the map of lithosphere plates’ absolute movement trajectories (according to Minster-Jordan model), a conclusion could be made that these plates apparently form groupings (distinctive “assembly’s”), which have their specific crust-mantle structure and an actual strict mutually ordered motion from the belts of the oceans spreading towards areas of Alpine orogenesis and subduction. Two groupings of the crust-mantle plates are distinguished at the present stage of the Earth’s geodynamical development. The first larger grouping includes African, Arabian, Eurasian, Indo-Australian and West-Pacific crust-mantle plates which are drawn (accreted) to the Alpine-Hymalayan fold-and-thrust orogenic belt, adjoined with Eurasian and Oceanic subduction belts. The second grouping is American-Greenland including South and North American, Greenland, Cocos, Nazca and Juan de Fuca crust-mantle plates which are coverged by Cordillera-Andes belt and Caribean subduction zone.

The Antarctic plate is an independent and distinct one with its adjacent segments of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. The mentioned crust-mantle plate groupings and the individual Antarctic plate are confined along the axis lines of oceanic upwelling-spreading belts. In this sense and delimitation, the mentioned groupings and the individual Antarctic plate represent well-defined Benard convection g-type cells, where upwelling streams form the perimeter and the diving streams are attracted to inner zones of the cell.

The zones and belts of the crust-mantle matter diving, which initiate counter-flowing uprising magmatism, transit D// layer at the core-mantle divide and belts of upwelling-spreading form (include) a planetary magma-fluid-dynamical system which ensures functioning of terrestrial convection cells (Figure 2), and hence, the entire planetary tectogenesis and, to a great extent (due to deep hydrogen entering into sedimentary strata), naftidogenesis. The principal elements of Earth’s magma-fluid-dynamical system are: 1) belts and areas of diving inside convection cells under subduction zones formed with orogenes, continental rifts and sedimentary basins; 2) transit D// layer at the core-mantle divide or outer layers of liquid core, where mantle matter, in form of magmatic melt, is redistributed to constantly feed the upwelling; 3) upwelling belts under oceanic rifts, where forced expansion of crust-mantle plates takes place along with discrete elevation of magmatic melt and buildup (rejuvenation) of Earth’s crust-mantle cover for its entire thickness; 4) discrete quasi-liquid phase in solid-phase segments of crust-mantle plates, concentrating primarily in diving zones under the continental rifts, sedimentary basins and orogenes due to destruction and accretion of crust-mantle matter under them through to the D// layer.

The movement of mantle matter melts from the diving belts to the upwelling belts is apparently discrete in volume and by lateral of D// layer (possibly in inner layers of liquid core as well) as well as in time, the same way as movement of solid-phase parts of crust-mantle cover within the boundaries of terrestrial convection cells, with the only difference that movement of solid-phase parts goes from spreading belts to diving belts and areas. Also, the motion speed of the solid-phase parts of the oceanic crust-mantle plates significantly (2-5-fold and more) exceeds the motion speed of the crust-mantle sectors, i.e. they undergo more intensive destruction, which explains the complete change of crust-mantle sectors over 140-150 mln. years.

The same magma-fluid-dynamical system provides an efficient escape for the endogenic heat energy, emitted at the core-mantle divide as well as the cyclic process of formation and disintegration of the Pangaeas, which now has the most logical explanation [4].

By the present time, due to active exploration for oil and gas, there accumulated a lot of geological and geophysical data for regional and deep structure practically for all, (over 550) presently existing Earth’s sedimentary and petroleum-bearing basins. Of special interest are the sedimentary basins with large thickness of sedimentary cover 7-22 km and possibly, more on the continental type lighosphere. These are the sedimentary basins, that at their base, feature a “window” of suboceanic or anomaly thin consolidated crusts and these basins are always petroleum-bearing [11].

The resulting study of the deep structure and the geodynamical evolution of the sedimentary basins, practically on all continents, in relation with Earth’s regional, global and planetary geodynamics, the understanding of basin creation was expanded as reflected in the following conclusion statements:

1.    Sedimentary and petroleum-bearing basins are in their nature a consequence of general planetary, global and regional crust-mantle geodynamics within boundaries of the crust-mantle plate (sector) groupings that form Benard convection g-type cells[3].

2.    Sedimentary basins are formed in the process of non-uniform gravitational diving of the crust-mantle matter’s in vertical and subvertical columnar bodies, caused by the melting and redistribution of lower mantle matter at the Earth’s outer core-mantle divide, due to necessity and possibility of Earth’s convection endogenic energy release (Figure 3).

3.    Non-uniform discrete diving of the vertical and subvertical columnar bodies causes the changing stress fields in the mantle cover, generations of bifurcation in micro- and macro-zones at the conditional boundaries of the columnar bodies, melting of mantle matter, uprising magmatism, leading to non-uniform destruction of crust-mantle cover are in the contours of the forming sedimentary basins and above all, destruction and non-uniform gravitational diving of the Earth’s crust blocks (rifting) and subsequent formation of the over-rift depression [11].

4.    Zones with more powerful rifting feature thinning up to the entire replacement of the initial consolidated crust’s strata of any formation type. In some cases it is non-accreted, single or multistage accreted crusts of modern and relict hollows with rudimentary oceanic crusts (Amerasian, Mediterranean, Black Sea, South Caspian, Caribean sedimentary basins, possibly Caspian, East-Barents and Gulf of Mexico petroleum basins). In essence, these are modern and ancient geosynclinal regions or their fragments. In other cases it is the curst of ancient and young platforms, passive, transforming or active continental margins (Lena-Vilyuy, Michigan PB, Baikal depression) or even margin parts of young upwelling rifts (Red Sea, Californian, Juan de Foca).

5.    During the process of diving-rifting destruction of crust-mantle cover areas for the forming sedimentary basins, two volumes of consolidated crust rock is returned into the mantle per one volume of sedimentary matter with compensated filling of over-rift depression (Figure 4).

6.    As for the sedimentary basins at the stage of the over-rift depression formations, the main pattern for the location of the petroleum accumulation zones in the sedimentary cover, both in shallow and deep areas, are HC accumulation confinedness to hypsometrically elevated inter-rift, in-rift, inter-fault and fault-line blocks: in the sedimentary cover these are arches, megaswells, swells, terraces, structural capes [1], whereas for the sedimentary basins at the early stages of “aging”, additional petroleum accumulation zones are inversion and overthrust structures.

7.    Further evolution of the sedimentary basins is related to their gradual destruction, which is explained by the continued diving of crust-mantle columnar bodies. This process is completed with accretion of the destructed crust-mantle cover areas and formation of not only the inversion and over-thrust structures, but also the shariages, in-thrusts, i.e. structures of lateral and vertical squeezing-out of the sedimentary cover, peculiar for the orogenes (Figure 5). Then the denudation and the almost entire (to the base) destruction of sedimentary basins takes place.

With such geodynamical mechanisms, the source of sedimentary and petroleum basin formation are phase transitions and the formation of thermal plumes at the core-mantle divide which cause diving-rifting destruction of the crust-mantle cover areas. In this context, any petroleum basin can be perceived as a subradial destruction channel from the core-mantle divide to surface. Such a channel is seen as an area of through columnar destruction of the crust-mantle cover, which procures counter-flowing (in relation to non-uniform discrete diving) uprising magmatism with export of released deep fluids, including hydrogen. Upper parts of this channel are completed with a rift system with an over-rift depression on any type of earth’s crust, including oceanic, suboceanic and subcontinental types with intrusive and effusive basalt rock of sinrift magmatism. Later during the aging process of the sedimentary basin, this area coverts to orogene or is consolidated, and the sub-crust (mantle) part of the columnar destruction area is decreased in size and restores the petrophysical and seismic characteristics to values close to inter-basin areas of the platforms. This is how continent genesis takes place with a slow return of core matter into the mantle, the absorption of lower mantle matter into the D// layer and the outer core with synchronous consumption of matter from the D// layer and the outer core to feed the constant upwelling under the oceanic rifts.

However, the main volume of feed is due to prompt diving-destruction process in subduction belts and areas for the margin areas of oceanic crust-mantle sectors at their junction with the active continental margins. Following these stipulations, two important methodology principles emerge [2]: principle of genetic unity (in tectonic-physical regard) for all sedimentary basins, including petroleum-bearing ones, even regardless of their individual parameters; and the principle of individuality, reflecting any individual characteristics of sedimentary basins, such as age, tectonic geodynamical confinedness, stratigraphic entirety of sedimentary cover, size and geometry in plane view, geothermal regimen, hydrogeology and fluid dynamics, on to genesis of naftids etc.

Presently, given the accumulated geological and geophysical data and the achieved high levels of hydrocarbon resources development in the Earth’s richest petroleum basins, large HC fields may be discovered in quickly forming sedimentary basins of paleogene-neogene age. Such basins are located in active and passive continental margins, in belts of modern orogenesis. Prime examples of such discoveries at great depths in underexplored sedimentary basin of collision belts in young and ancient platforms are the Shah-Deniz field in South Caspian depression, Tiber, Kaskida and other deposits in Gulf of Mexico basin; Tupi, Carioca Sugar Loaf fields in Santos basin of the Brazilian shelf; Kashagan, Tengiz, Karachaganak, Astrakhanskoye deposits in the Caspian depression; Lunskoye, Chayvo, Piltun-Astokhskoye, Kirinskoye, South Kirinskoye and Mynginskoye fields at Sakhalin shelf in Sea of Okhotsk basin; Rusanovskoye, Leningradskoye in Kara sea, Kamennomysskoye and North-Kamennomysskoye in Ob Bay as well as some in the Barents sea aquatories – Shtockman, Ludlovskoye, Ledovoye; in northern part of the Caspian sea – Rakushechnoye, Yuri Korchagin, Khvalynskoye, Tsentralnoye fields. Such discoveries are expected in Eastern Arctic seas [10], they are also not excluded in the Russian sector of the Black sea.

Conclusions
Resolving the fundamental problems of basin genesis and petroleum bearing capacity shows a tendency of its closer connection to the problems of Earth’s deep, global and planetary geodynamics. Presently prevalent concepts of lithosphere plate tectonics may be converted into a more complete concept of crust-mantle plates (sectors) geodynamics. There are presently all grounds to believe that sedimentary basins and petroleum basins are not lithosphere or even lithosphere-upper mantle formation, but crust-mantle type. They are a consequence of phase transitions and formation of thermal plumes, at core-mantle divide, diving-rifting destruction of crust-mantle cover areas over thermal plumes and synchronous action of magma-fluid-dynamical system in the mantle consolidated in basement and sedimentary cover rock.

Any petroleum basin can be perceived as a sub-radial destructive channel from the core-mantle separation to the surface. Such a channel is seen as an area of possible through columnar destruction of crust-mantle cover, which procures counter-flowing (in relation to non-uniform discrete diving) uprising magmatism with export of released deep fluids, including hydrogen, due to decompression at the boundaries of columnar bodies.

The upper part of this channel features a rifting system with over-rift depression in earth’s crust. This area is then converted to orogene or is consolidated, and sub-crust (mantle) part of the columnar destruction area is decreased in size and restores its petrophysical and seismic characteristics to values close to inter-basin areas of platforms.

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